?_aÿÿÿÿû”QHlzò-2Russian Grammar BasicsBrowseButtons()/&;)z4^ ‹G‰Fø+G÷Øÿÿ ‚ ÿÿÿÿ|CONTEXTÇ|CTXOMAP@j|FONT‰U|KWBTREEew|KWDATACv|KWMAPTw|SYSTEM|TOPIC|TTLBTREE”|bm0òtroduction_to_Russian_Grammar c:\grammar\tltrans\oldgramm\oldrus\RUSGRAMR.RTF 1 L 643ACF5 Nouns 1 Nouns c:\grammar\tltrans\oldgramm\oldrus\RUSGRAMR.RTF 1 VD58EB3FA Adjectives 1 Adjectives c:\grammar\tltrans\oldgramm\oldrus\RUSGRAMR.RTF 1 R555CEAEC Pronouns 1 Pronouns c:\grammar\tltrans\oldgramm\oldrus\RUSGRAMR.RTF 1 R190F7C21 Numerals 1 Numerals c:\grammar\tltrans\oldgramm\oldrus\RUSGRAMR.RTF 1 L 7D8C910 Verbs 1 Verbs c:\grammar\tltrans\oldgramm\oldrus\RUSGRAMR.RTF 1 PBC6612A5 Adverbs 1 Adverbs c:\grammar\tltrans\oldgramm\oldrus\RUSGRAMR.RTF 1 ZFFB5F3A7 Prepositions 1 Prepositions c:\grammar\tltrans\oldgramm\oldrus\RUSGRAMR.RTF 1 T10242A49 Particles 1 Particles c:\grammar\tltrans\oldgramm\oldrus\RUSGRAMR.RTF 1 \99341E8F Interjections 1 Interjections c:\grammar\tltrans\oldgramm\oldrus\RUSGRAMR.RTF 1 Z 3894F85 Conjunctions 1 Conjunctions c:\grammar\tltrans\oldgramm\olùPðPÿÿÿÿ 9ÿÿÿÿE1Ñÿÿÿÿ¢ÿÿÿÿEÝContents4 y) "€€Œ˜¤„$~€‚ÿContents´ñE-à T〤„$~€‚‚ãò6N¤€‰€‚‚ãõ¬C€‰€‚‚ãú³ŽÕ€‰€‚‚ãìê\U€‰€‚‚ã!|€‰€‚‚ãÉØ€‰€‚‚ã¥f¼€‰€‚‚ã§óµÿ€‰€‚‚ãI*$€‰€‚‚ã4™€‰€‚‚ã…O‰€‰€‚‚ÿThe following Help Topics are available:Introduction to Russian Grammar Nouns Adjectives Pronouns Numerals Verbs Adverbs Prepositions Particles Interjections Conjunctions @ym0 0€ €Pþ(‚HãàFîo€‰€‚ÿSentences +-˜( €€Pþ(„H€‚ÿ@mØ. ,€$€Pþ(„H´ãL“ƒ€‰‚ÿGrammar Pages*˜' €€¤„$~€‚ÿ±zس7 >€ö€¤„H~€‚€†"€€‚ÿFor Help on Help for Windows, press F1.For Help on Help for Macintosh, select Help with Quick Help from the menu .*Ý' €€¤„$~€‚ÿP³-17‚Š-xŠMIntroduction to Russian GrammarK"Ýx) "€D€Œ˜¤„$~€‚ÿIntroduction to Russian Grammarï-( €ß€¤„$~€‚ÿIn English, the role of words in a sentence is indicated by the word order. For example, the subject normally appears before the object. In the sentence, "Bob ate the fish," there is no confusion as to which is eating which. Most of the information conveyed by word order in English is conveyed in Russian by the grammatical endings of the words, so Russian word order is far more flexible. This means that, in Russian, more information can often be conveyed with fewer words than are needed in English. It also means that to understand a Russian sentence, one must understand the grammatical characteristics of each word. For this reason, our discussion of nouns, verbs, pronouns, adjectives, and numerals will center on grammatical endings.wKx , &€—€¤„$~€‚‚‚‚‚ÿThe terms case, declension (decline), and agreement will be used throughout the discussion of nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and numerals. There are six cases in modern Russian which apply to these parts of speech. The case of a word tells how it is being used in a sentence.The six cases and their most common meanings are:‡+ \#ˆ€V®¾ €€˜¦ÿ €€˜¦„$~€‚ÿ €€˜¦„$~€‚ÿÿÿNominative the subject of a sentenceŸQ , N#l€¢®¾  €€˜¦„$~€‚ÿ €€˜¦„$~€‚ÿÿÿAccusative the direct object of most verbs; the object of some prepositions§Y Ó N#l€²®¾  €€˜¦„$~€‚ÿ €€˜¦„$~€‚ÿÿÿGenitive possession; absence or negation; the object of some verbs and prepositionsÎ_, ¡ o#®€¾®¾  €€˜¦„$~€‚ÿ€ €¦„$~‚ÿ€@€¦„$~ÿ €B€˜¦„$~€‚ÿÿÿPrepositional(or Locative) used only with certain prepositions, often showing location»mÓ \ N#l€Ú®¾  €€˜¦„$~€‚ÿ €€˜¦„$~€‚ÿÿÿDative the indirect object; used in impersonal constructions; the object of some verbs and prepositions»m¡  N#l€Ú®¾  €€˜¦„$~€‚ÿ € €˜¦„$~€‚ÿÿÿInstrumental shows the means by which an action is performed; the object of some verbs and prepositions€C\ —= H€‡€¤„$~€‚€€€€€€‚‚‚ÿThe nominative singular form is considered the root word and is the form found in the dictionary. The cases other than nominative are collectively called the oblique cases. The full declension of a noun, pronoun, adjective, or numeral is the application of the six case endings.Each word in a sentence reflects its role in the sentence with its ending. An adjective has the same case, number, and gender (when singular) as the noun that it modifies. In other words, adjectives agree with the nouns they modify. There is also agreement between subjects and verbs.6  ÙA) €€¤„$~€‚‚ÿOn your screen the following information is given for each wor—ÙAÝd in a Transparent Language title: the dictionary entry; the word translation, which may differ from the translation given in the segment translation; and the grammatical comments, which describe, as applicable, the case, gender, number, tense, and other aspects of the word as it is used in the sentence. Sometimes a phrase translation is also given, where the meaning of a group of words cannot easily be inferred from the meanings of each individual word.*—B' €€¤„$~€‚ÿJ"ÙAMB( €D€˜¦„$~€‚ÿSuggestions for Getting Started°lBýFD V€Ù€¤„$~€‚‚‚‚€€€€€€€€‚ÿBecause Russian is so different from English in its alphabet, vocabulary, grammar, and syntax, it presents special challenges to the beginning student. Here are some suggestions for getting started.1. Start with the alphabet. Use the Alphabet Reference until you are familiar with almost all of the letters of the Russian alphabet. When you can associate a sound with most of the letters you are ready to move to the next step.2. We recommend that you begin with the Transparent Language Title, The Most Common Words in Russian, which was written with the beginning student in mind. In this Title, 100 Russian words are introduced in groups of ten in ten simple dialogues. At the end of each section the ten new words and additional vocabulary are reviewed again. Create a vocabulary list of these 100 basic words by using the Check Words feature as you progress through each section. Simply check each of the Vocabulary words at the end of each section. To master these words play the different games using just your Checked Words. Also, sound out each word with the Word Sound available in each Title on CD.¾uMB»JI `€ë€¤„$~€‚€€€€€€€€‚‚€€‚ÿ3. Refer to Grammar Basics (this Help file) for grammatical answers about any word in a Title. With the word in question highlighted, either use the Link button on the Grammar window or click the opposite button on your mouse to jump to a grammar topic in Grammar Basics. In this Help file you will find concise information highlighting the major points of Russian grammar.4. Familiarize yourself with the different case forms of nouns and pronouns. See how a word is used in different cases with the Find Root command. This will show you the other occurrences of a word in a Title. This exercise will help you become familiar with the different case forms of a word and show you how different cases are used to give different meanings in a sentence. Remember to learn new words by the root form of the word (the nominative form), not by one of the oblique cases.6 ýFñL+ $€€¤„$~€‚‚‚‚ÿ5. As you progress, you will notice that the English translation of a Russian sentence may be entirely different in its formation from the Russian. To see how Russian sentences are formed, read a sentence word-by-word with the individual English word translations. This step between the two languages lets you experience the logic of Russian grammar with English words.6. Everyone has his or her own optimal learning style. Experiment with the many features of Transparent Language to find what works best for you.™q»JŠM( €â€¤„$~€‚‚ÿ7. To learn a foreign language is to learn how another people lives, thinks, and feels. Enjoy the adventure!6ñLÀM1H¢¡ÀMñMÌ…Nouns1ŠMñM) "€€Œ˜¤„$~€‚ÿNounsâÀM€4 6€Å€¤„$~€ãò6N¤€‰€‚ÿAs in English, a Russian noun names a person, place, thing, or abstract idea. However, Russian nouns have different endings to reflect three different attributes - gender, number and case.. Unlike English, Russian nouns are either masculine, feminine, or neuter. The number of a noun is either singular or plural. The use of a noun in a sentence is shown by the case ending. There are six cases in Russian, as described in the topic, Introduction to Russian GrammarñM€ŠM ). ئñMë€2 2€M€¤„$~€‚‚€‚€‚‚ÿGender Nouns are divided among three genders: masculine, feminine and neuter. This is true not only of people and animals, but of inanimate objects as well.ŠS€u7 >€¦€¤ˆ$~i€€€€€‚‚ÿMasculine nouns end in a consonant (j is a consonant) or the soft sign, -;:së€è_#Ž€(«¹ €€¤ÿ$€€¤ˆ$~i€‚ÿ$€€¤ˆ$~i€‚ÿÿÿbrat(brother)buJ‚R#t€ «¹ $€€¤ˆ$~i€‚ÿ$€ €¤ˆ$~i€‚ÿÿÿdom(house)`誂R#t€«¹ $€€¤ˆ$~i€‚ÿ$€ €¤ˆ$~i€‚ÿÿÿhaj(tea)bJ‚ ƒR#t€ «¹ $€€¤ˆ$~i€‚ÿ$€ €¤ˆ$~i€‚ÿÿÿmeh(sword)cª‚oƒR#t€"«¹ $€€¤ˆ$~i€‚ÿ$€€¤ˆ$~i€‚ÿÿÿkon;(horse)”P ƒ„D X€ €¤ˆ$~i€‚€€€€€€€€‚‚ÿFeminine nouns end in the vowels, -a or -q,or in the soft sign, -;.voƒy„_#Ž€.©½ €€¤ÿ$€€¤ˆ$~i€‚ÿ$€€¤ˆ$~i€‚ÿÿÿsvob%da(freedom)c„Ü„R#t€"©½ $€€¤ˆ$~i€‚ÿ$€€¤ˆ$~i€‚ÿÿÿ'izn;(life)by„>…R#t€ ©½ $€€¤ˆ$~i€‚ÿ$€€¤ˆ$~i€‚ÿÿÿt`tq(aunt)cÜ„¡…R#t€"©½ $€€¤ˆ$~i€‚ÿ$€€¤ˆ$~i€‚ÿÿÿp@rta(desk)c>…†R#t€"©½ $€€¤ˆ$~i€‚ÿ$€€¤ˆ$~i€‚ÿÿÿdver;(door)b¡…f†R#t€ ©½ $€€¤ˆ$~i€‚ÿ$€€¤ˆ$~i€‚ÿÿÿv%lq(will)”L†ú†H `€˜€¤ˆ$~i€‚‚€€€€€€€€€‚‚ÿNeuter nouns end in the vowels -o, -e, -`. A few end in -mq.sf†m‡_#Ž€(¦à €€¤ÿ$€€¤ˆ$~i€‚ÿ$€€¤ˆ$~i€‚ÿÿÿsel%(village)dú†Ñ‡R#t€$¦à $€€¤ˆ$~i€‚ÿ$€€¤ˆ$~i€‚ÿÿÿokn%(window)em‡6ˆR#t€&¦à $€€¤ˆ$~i€‚ÿ$€€¤ˆ$~i€‚ÿÿÿs&rdce(heart)eч›ˆR#t€&¦à $€€¤ˆ$~i€‚ÿ$€€¤ˆ$~i€‚ÿÿÿ%blako(cloud)d6ˆÿˆR#t€$¦à $€€¤ˆ$~i€‚ÿ$€€¤ˆ$~i€‚ÿÿÿru';`(rifle)c›ˆb‰R#t€"¦à $€€¤ˆ$~i€‚ÿ$€€¤ˆ$~i€‚ÿÿÿvr&mq(time)aÿˆÃ‰R#t€¦à $€€¤ˆ$~i€‚ÿ$€ €¤ˆ$~i€‚ÿÿÿ$mq(name)/b‰ò‰+ &€€¤ˆ$~i€‚‚ÿêÉ‹, &€Õ€¤„$~€‚€‚ÿNumberIn English the plural of a noun is usually formed by adding -s. In Russian the form of the plural depends on its case and gender. The formation of plural nouns of each gender in the six cases is shown in the tables below.(ò‰0‹% €€˜’€‚ÿ/‹_‹' €€¦‚߀‚ÿCase Ä0‹c@ N€‰€¤„$~€€€€€€€‚‚‚€‚ÿA noun may appear in any of the six cases, depending on its function in a sentence. There are three basic declension patterns for nouns. The first pattern includes nearly all masculine and neuter nouns, the second applies to feminine nouns ending in a vowel (-a or -q) and the third applies to feminine nouns ending in the soft sign (-;).Note that in some words the stress shifts when the word is declined in some cases or in the plural.[1_‹¾* $€b€¦„$~€€‚ÿAnimate or Inanimate and the Accusative Case f8c0À. *€q€¤„$~€€€‚ÿIn the first declension pattern of nouns and in plural nouns, a distinction exists between animate and inanimate nouns in the accusative case. (This distinction does not apply to neuter nouns since they always represent inanimate objects.) All masculine nouns, singular and plural, which refer to animate beings (persons or animals) take a genitive ending in the accusative case. The same is true of animate feminine nouns, but only in the plural. Masculine inanimate nouns and plural feminine inanimate nouns use the nominati¾0ÀŠMve ending for the accusative case.Ã…¾óÀ> J€ €¤„$~€‚€‚€‚€€€€‚‚ÿI. Declension of Masculine and Neuter NounsINANIMATE MASCULINE AND NEUTER SINGULAR NOUNS: klass, m&sto (class, place)¿*0À²Á•#ú€Tœw ¨ F €€¤ÿ$€€¤„$~€€‚ÿ$€€¤„$~€€‚ÿ$€&€¤„$~€€‚ÿ$€6€¤„$~€€‚ÿÿÿCaseEndingNounTranslation³/óÀe„#Ø€^œw ¨ F €€¤„$~€‚ÿ€€¤„$~€‚ÿ,€ €¤„$~€€‚€‚ÿ €B€¤„$~€‚‚ÿÿÿNominativeklass,m&stoclassplace³/²ÁÄ#Ø€^œw ¨ F €€¤„$~€‚ÿ€€¤„$~€‚ÿ,€ €¤„$~€€‚€‚ÿ €B€¤„$~€‚‚ÿÿÿAccusativeklass,m&stoclassplaceÌHeÂäÄ#Ø€œw ¨ F €€¤„$~€‚ÿ€€¤„$~€‚ÿ,€ €¤„$~€€‚€‚ÿ €D€¤„$~€‚‚ÿÿÿGenitive-akl@ssa,m&staof (the, a) classof (the, a) placeÙUýĄ#Ø€ªœw ¨ F €€¤„$~€‚ÿ€ €¤„$~€‚ÿ,€*€¤„$~€€‚€‚ÿ €N€¤„$~€‚‚ÿÿÿPrepositional-ekl@sse,m&steabout (the, a) classabout (the, a) placeÒNäÃÅ„#Ø€œœw ¨ F €€¤„$~€‚ÿ€€¤„$~€‚ÿ,€€¤„$~€€‚€‚ÿ €@€¤„$~€‚‚ÿÿÿDative-ukl@ssu,m&stuto/for (the, a) classto/for (the, a) placeÓO½ÄbÆ„#Ø€žœw ¨ F €€¤„$~€‚ÿ€€¤„$~€‚ÿ,€*€¤„$~€€‚€‚ÿ €R€¤„$~€‚‚ÿÿÿInstrumental-omkl@ssom,m&stomby (the, a) classby (the, a) placeŽXÅðÆ6 <€°€¤„$~€‚‚€€€€‚‚ÿINANIMATE MASCULINE AND NEUTER PLURAL NOUNS: kl@ssy, mest@ (classes, places)¿*bƯǕ#ú€T¨t ´  €€¤ÿ$€€¤„$~€€‚ÿ$€€¤„$~€€‚ÿ$€&€¤„$~€€‚ÿ$€6€¤„$~€€‚ÿÿÿCaseEndingNounTranslationÆ;ðÆuÈ‹#æ€v¨t ´  €€¤„$~€‚ÿ,€€¤„$~€€‚€‚ÿ,€0€¤„$~€€‚€‚ÿ €T€¤„$~€‚‚ÿÿÿNominative-y,-akl@ssy,mest@classesplacesÆ;¯Ç;É‹#æ€v¨t ´  €€¤„$~€‚ÿ,€€¤„$~€€‚€‚ÿ,€0€¤„$~€€‚€‚ÿ €T€¤„$~€‚‚ÿÿÿAccusative-y,-akl@ssy,mest@classesplacesÍHuÈÊ…#Ú€¨t ´  €€¤„$~€‚ÿ,€€¤„$~€€‚€‚ÿ €,€¤„$~€‚‚ÿ €J€¤„$~€‚‚ÿÿÿGenitive-ov,-kl@ssovmestof (the) classesof (the) places×S;ÉßÊ„#Ø€¦¨t ´  €€¤„$~€‚ÿ€ €¤„$~€‚ÿ,€,€¤„$~€€‚€‚ÿ €T€¤„$~€‚‚ÿÿÿPrepositional-axkl@ssax,mest@xabout (the) classesabout (the) placesÒNʱ˄#Ø€œ¨t ´  €€¤„$~€‚ÿ€€¤„$~€‚ÿ,€€¤„$~€€‚€‚ÿ €F€¤„$~€‚‚ÿÿÿDative-amkl@ssam,mest@mto/for (the) classesto/for (the) placesÓOßÊ„Ì„#Ø€ž¨t ´  €€¤„$~€‚ÿ€€¤„$~€‚ÿ,€,€¤„$~€€‚€‚ÿ €X€¤„$~€‚‚ÿÿÿInstrumental-amikl@ssami,mest@miby (the) classesby (the) placesj:±ËîÌ0 0€t€¤„$~€‚‚€€‚‚ÿANIMATE MASCULINE SINGULAR NOUN: stud&nt (student)¿*„Ì­Í•#ú€T¢n ® " €€¤ÿ$€€¤„$~€€‚ÿ$€€¤„$~€€‚ÿ$€&€¤„$~€€‚ÿ$€6€¤„$~€€‚ÿÿÿCaseEndingNounTranslation¡%îÌNÎ|#È€J¢n ® " €€¤„$~€‚ÿ€€¤„$~€‚ÿ€"€¤„$~€‚ÿ€6€¤„$~€‚ÿÿÿNominative-stud&ntstudent£'­ÍñÎ|#È€N¢n ® " €€¤„$~€‚ÿ€€¤„$~€‚ÿ€$€¤„$~€‚ÿ€:€¤„$~€‚ÿÿÿAccusative-astud&ntastudent­1NΞÏ|#È€b¢n ® " €€¤„$~€‚ÿ€€¤„$~€‚ÿ€ €¤„$~€‚ÿ€6€¤„$~€‚ÿÿÿGenitive-astud&ntaof (the, a) studentµ9ñÎ_|#È€r¢n ® " €€¤„$~€‚ÿ€ €¤„$~€‚ÿ€*€¤„$~€žÏ_ŠM‚ÿ€@€¤„$~€‚ÿÿÿPrepositional-estud&nteabout (the, a) student¯3žÏ|#È€f¢n ® " €€¤„$~€‚ÿ€€¤„$~€‚ÿ€€¤„$~€‚ÿ€2€¤„$~€‚ÿÿÿDative-ustud&ntuto/for (the, a) studentµ9_Ã|#È€r¢n ® " €€¤„$~€‚ÿ€"€¤„$~€‚ÿ€.€¤„$~€‚ÿ€F€¤„$~€‚ÿÿÿ Instrumental-omstud&ntomby (the, a) studentj:-0 0€t€¤„$~€‚‚€€‚‚ÿANIMATE MASCULINE PLURAL NOUN: stud&nty (students)¿*Ãì•#ú€Tp £ ü €€¤ÿ$€€¤„$~€€‚ÿ$€€¤„$~€€‚ÿ$€&€¤„$~€€‚ÿ$€6€¤„$~€€‚ÿÿÿCaseEndingNounTranslation¤(-|#È€Pp £ ü €€¤„$~€‚ÿ€€¤„$~€‚ÿ€$€¤„$~€‚ÿ€:€¤„$~€‚ÿÿÿNominative-ystud&ntystudents¦*ì6|#È€Tp £ ü €€¤„$~€‚ÿ€€¤„$~€‚ÿ€&€¤„$~€‚ÿ€>€¤„$~€‚ÿÿÿAccusative-ovstud&ntovstudents­1ã|#È€bp £ ü €€¤„$~€‚ÿ€€¤„$~€‚ÿ€"€¤„$~€‚ÿ€:€¤„$~€‚ÿÿÿGenitive-ovstud&ntovof (the) studentsµ96˜|#È€rp £ ü €€¤„$~€‚ÿ€ €¤„$~€‚ÿ€,€¤„$~€‚ÿ€D€¤„$~€‚ÿÿÿPrepositional-axstud&ntaxabout (the) students¯3ãG|#È€fp £ ü €€¤„$~€‚ÿ€€¤„$~€‚ÿ€€¤„$~€‚ÿ€6€¤„$~€‚ÿÿÿDative-amstud&ntamto/for (the) students³7˜ú|#È€np £ ü €€¤„$~€‚ÿ€€¤„$~€‚ÿ€,€¤„$~€‚ÿ€F€¤„$~€‚ÿÿÿInstrumental-amistud&ntamiby (the) students›cG•8 @€Æ€¤„$~€‚‚€‚€‚€€‚‚ÿII. Declension of Feminine Nouns ending in a VowelFEMININE SINGULAR NOUN: d@ma (lady)¿*úT•#ú€T¥e – ã €€¤ÿ$€€¤„$~€€‚ÿ$€€¤„$~€€‚ÿ$€&€¤„$~€€‚ÿ$€6€¤„$~€€‚ÿÿÿCaseEndingNounTranslationœ •ð|#È€@¥e – ã €€¤„$~€‚ÿ€€¤„$~€‚ÿ€$€¤„$~€‚ÿ€2€¤„$~€‚ÿÿÿNominative-ad@maladyœ TŒ |#È€@¥e – ã €€¤„$~€‚ÿ€€¤„$~€‚ÿ€$€¤„$~€‚ÿ€2€¤„$~€‚ÿÿÿAccusative-ud@mulady¦*ð2 |#È€T¥e – ã €€¤„$~€‚ÿ€€¤„$~€‚ÿ€ €¤„$~€‚ÿ€.€¤„$~€‚ÿÿÿGenitive-yd@myof (the, a) lady¯3Œ á |#È€f¥e – ã €€¤„$~€‚ÿ€ €¤„$~€‚ÿ€*€¤„$~€‚ÿ€8€¤„$~€‚ÿÿÿPrepositional-ed@meabout (the, a) lady¨,2 ‰ |#È€X¥e – ã €€¤„$~€‚ÿ€€¤„$~€‚ÿ€€¤„$~€‚ÿ€*€¤„$~€‚ÿÿÿDative-ed@meto/for (the, a) lady¬0á 5 |#È€`¥e – ã €€¤„$~€‚ÿ€€¤„$~€‚ÿ€*€¤„$~€‚ÿ€:€¤„$~€‚ÿÿÿInstrumental-ojd@mojby (the, a) lady[+‰  0 0€V€¤„$~€‚‚€€‚‚ÿFEMININE PLURAL NOUN: d@my (ladies)¿*5 O •#ú€T£{   Ë €€¤ÿ$€€¤„$~€€‚ÿ$€€¤„$~€€‚ÿ$€&€¤„$~€€‚ÿ$€6€¤„$~€€‚ÿÿÿCaseEndingNounTranslationž" í |#È€D£{   Ë €€¤„$~€‚ÿ€€¤„$~€‚ÿ€$€¤„$~€‚ÿ€2€¤„$~€‚ÿÿÿNominative-yd@myladiesœ O ‰|#È€@£{   Ë €€¤„$~€‚ÿ€€¤„$~€‚ÿ€"€¤„$~€‚ÿ€.€¤„$~€‚ÿÿÿAccusative-d@mladies¤(í -|#È€P£{   Ë €€¤„$~€‚ÿ€€¤„$~€‚ÿ€€¤„$~€‚ÿ€*€¤„$~€‚ÿÿÿGenitive-d@mof (the) ladies ¯3‰Ü|#È€f£{   Ë €€¤„$~€‚ÿ€ €¤„$~€‚ÿ€,€¤„$~€‚ÿ€<€¤„$~€‚ÿÿÿPrepositional-axd@maxabout (the) ladies©--‘@|#È€Z£{  Ü‘@ŠM Ë €€¤„$~€‚ÿ€€¤„$~€‚ÿ€€¤„$~€‚ÿ€.€¤„$~€‚ÿÿÿDative-amd@mamto/for (the) ladies­1Ü>A|#È€b£{   Ë €€¤„$~€‚ÿ€€¤„$~€‚ÿ€,€¤„$~€‚ÿ€>€¤„$~€‚ÿÿÿInstrumental-amid@mamiby (the) ladies¹€‘@÷A9 @€€¤„$~€‚€‚‚€‚€€‚‚ÿIII. Declension of Feminine Nouns ending in the soft signFEMININE SINGULAR NOUN: tetr@d; (exercise book, notebook)¿*>A¶B•#ú€T¨h – ÷ €€¤ÿ$€€¤„$~€€‚ÿ$€€¤„$~€€‚ÿ$€&€¤„$~€€‚ÿ$€6€¤„$~€€‚ÿÿÿCaseEndingNounTranslation¢&÷AXC|#È€L¨h – ÷ €€¤„$~€‚ÿ€€¤„$~€‚ÿ€"€¤„$~€‚ÿ€6€¤„$~€‚ÿÿÿNominative-tetr@d;notebook£'¶BûC|#È€N¨h – ÷ €€¤„$~€‚ÿ€€¤„$~€‚ÿ€$€¤„$~€‚ÿ€8€¤„$~€‚ÿÿÿAccusative -tetr@d;notebook­1XC¨D|#È€b¨h – ÷ €€¤„$~€‚ÿ€€¤„$~€‚ÿ€ €¤„$~€‚ÿ€4€¤„$~€‚ÿÿÿGenitive-itetr@diof (the, a) notebook·;ûC_E|#È€v¨h – ÷ €€¤„$~€‚ÿ€ €¤„$~€‚ÿ€*€¤„$~€‚ÿ€>€¤„$~€‚ÿÿÿPrepositional-itetr@diabout (the, a) notebook °4¨DF|#È€h¨h – ÷ €€¤„$~€‚ÿ€€¤„$~€‚ÿ€€¤„$~€‚ÿ€0€¤„$~€‚ÿÿÿDative-itetr@dito/for (the, a) notebook ´8_EÃF|#È€p¨h – ÷ €€¤„$~€‚ÿ€€¤„$~€‚ÿ€*€¤„$~€‚ÿ€@€¤„$~€‚ÿÿÿInstrumental-;[tetr@d;[by (the, a) notebook qAF4G0 0€‚€¤„$~€‚‚€€‚‚ÿFEMININE PLURAL NOUN: tetr@di (exercise books, notebooks)¿*ÃFóG•#ú€T©p ¢ ò €€¤ÿ$€€¤„$~€€‚ÿ$€€¤„$~€€‚ÿ$€&€¤„$~€€‚ÿ$€6€¤„$~€€‚ÿÿÿCaseEndingNounTranslation¤(4G—H|#È€P©p ¢ ò €€¤„$~€‚ÿ€€¤„$~€‚ÿ€$€¤„$~€‚ÿ€8€¤„$~€‚ÿÿÿNominative-itetr@dinotebooks¥)óG kras$veebeautiful + suffix > more beautifulb%lee + kras$vyj > b%lee kras$vyj'more' + beautiful > more beautifulSuperlative DegreeThe superlative degree is formed with the addition of the suffix "-ejw-" or "-ajw-", or with the addition of the word for 'the most, "s@myj".'kras$v(yj) + ejwij > kras$vejwijbeautiful + suffix = the most beautifulŒV1ÈÚÊ6 <€¬€¤„$~€‚€€€€‚‚‚ÿs@myj + kras$vyj > s@myj kras$vyj'the most' + beautiful = the most beautiful9NÊË1ìH¡/ËGË#Pronouns4 ÚÊGË) "€€Œ˜¤„$~€‚ÿPronounsæË[Í. *€Í€¤„$~€‚€‚‚‚ÿPersonal Pronouns Personal pronouns refer to a person or thing that has been previously mentioned. For example, "Pam went to the game. I met her there." The pronoun 'her' refers to 'Pam.' 'Pam' is the antecedent of 'her.' Pronouns agree in gender and number with their antecedents. The case of a pronoun is determined by its use in the sentence.Personal pronouns may be singular or plural, and 1st, 2nd or 3rd person. They are used in all six cases. In English, these are:*GË…Í' €€¤„$~€‚ÿ…[Í Îo#®€,“¯ Z €€˜¦ÿ €€˜¦„$~€‚ÿ€€˜¦„$~‚ÿ€€˜¦„$~‚ÿÿÿSingularPluralv…Í€Îa#’€*“¯ Z  €€˜¦„$~€‚ÿ€€˜¦„$~‚ÿ€ €˜¦„$~‚ÿÿÿ1st personI wez ÎúÎa#’€2“¯ Z  €€˜¦„$~€‚ÿ€€˜¦„$~‚ÿ€$€˜¦„$~‚ÿÿÿ2nd personyou you ƒ"€Î}Ïa#’€D“¯ Z  €€˜¦„$~€‚ÿ€€˜¦„$~‚ÿ€8€˜¦„$~‚ÿÿÿ3rd personhe / she / itthey^5úÎÛÏ) "€j€¤„$~€‚‚‚ÿIn Russian, the nominative forms are as follows:…}Ïlo#®€,“³ [ ÛÏlÚÊ€€˜¦ÿ €€˜¦„$~€‚ÿ€€˜¦„$~‚ÿ€€˜¦„$~‚ÿÿÿSingularPluralyÛÏåd#˜€*“³ [  €€˜¦„$~€‚ÿ €€˜¦„$~€‚ÿ€"€˜¦„$~‚ÿÿÿ1st personqmyzl_d#˜€,“³ [  €€˜¦„$~€‚ÿ €€˜¦„$~€‚ÿ€$€˜¦„$~‚ÿÿÿ2nd persontyvy…!åäd#˜€B“³ [  €€˜¦„$~€‚ÿ €€˜¦„$~€‚ÿ€8€˜¦„$~‚ÿÿÿ3rd personon, on@, on%on$|5_`G \€k€¤„$~€‚€€€€€€€€€€‚ÿPresented below are the personal pronouns in their six cases. Note that in the oblique cases, the personal pronouns on, on@, on%, on$ have an "n" added when they follow a preposition. Note also, that unlike English, the equivalent of 'I', "q", is not capitalized unless it begins a sentence. In formal correspondence, however, the pronoun "vy" (in all its forms) is capitalized as a token of respect. The polite singular person "vy" is used to address everyone other than family members, small children, and people with whom one is on intimate terms.;ä›, (€€¤„$~€‚‚€‚ÿSingular:äN`–#ü€œœ¢  õ €€˜¦ÿ €€˜¦„$~€‚ÿ€€˜¦„$~ÿ€€¦„$~‚‚ÿ€2€¦„$~‚‚ÿ€j€¦„$~‚‚ÿÿÿCase1st sing. (I)2nd sing. (you: familiar)3rd sing.(he, she, it)¾(›=–#ü€Pœ¢  õ €€¦„$~ÿ €€˜¦„$~€‚ÿ&€€˜¦„$~€€‚ÿ&€&€˜¦„$~€€‚ÿ €2€˜¦„$~€‚ÿÿÿNominativeqtyon, on@, on%²,ï†#Ü€Xœ¢  õ  €€˜¦„$~€‚ÿ&€€˜¦„$~€€‚ÿ&€*€˜¦„$~€€‚ÿ €:€˜¦„$~€‚ÿÿÿAccusativemen*teb*eg%, e`, eg%°*=Ÿ†#Ü€Tœ¢  õ  €€˜¦„$~€‚ÿ&€€˜¦„$~€€‚ÿ&€&€˜¦„$~€€‚ÿ €6€˜¦„$~€‚ÿÿÿGenitivemen*teb*eg%, e`, eg%Á;ï`†#Ü€vœ¢  õ  €€˜¦„$~€‚ÿ&€ €˜¦„$~€€‚ÿ&€6€˜¦„$~€€‚ÿ €J€˜¦„$~€‚ÿÿÿPrepositional%bo mneo teb&o n`m, o nej, o n`m­'Ÿ †#Ü€Nœ¢  õ  €€˜¦„$~€‚ÿ&€€˜¦„$~€€‚ÿ&€ €˜¦„$~€€‚ÿ €0€˜¦„$~€‚ÿÿÿDativemneteb&em), ej, em)É=`Ö Œ#è€zœ¢  õ  €€˜¦„$~€‚ÿ&€€˜¦„$~€€‚ÿ2€8€˜¦„$~€€€€‚ÿ €Z€˜¦„$~€‚ÿÿÿInstrumentalmnoj/mn%[tob%j/tob%[im, ej/e[, im9  , (€€¤„$~€‚‚€‚ÿPlural:èRÖ ÷ –#ü€¤œ   ñ €€˜¦ÿ €€˜¦„$~€‚ÿ€€˜¦„$~ÿ€€¦„$~‚‚ÿ€4€¦„$~‚‚ÿ€~€¦„$~‚‚ÿÿÿCase1st plural(we)2nd plural(you: plural and formal)3rd plural(they)¦  Š#ä€8œ   ñ €€¦„$~ÿ €€˜¦„$~€‚ÿ €€˜¦„$~€‚ÿ€&€˜¦„$~‚ÿ€.€˜¦„$~‚ÿÿÿNominativemyvyon$–÷ 3 z#Ä€8œ   ñ  €€˜¦„$~€‚ÿ €€˜¦„$~€‚ÿ€&€˜¦„$~‚ÿ€0€˜¦„$~‚ÿÿÿAccusativenasvasix” Ç z#Ä€4œ   ñ  €€˜¦„$~€‚ÿ €€˜¦„$~€‚ÿ€"€˜¦„$~‚ÿ€,€˜¦„$~‚ÿÿÿGenitivenasvasix &3 g z#Ä€Lœ   ñ  €€˜¦„$~€‚ÿ € €˜¦„$~€‚ÿ€0€˜¦„$~‚ÿ€>€˜¦„$~‚ÿÿÿPrepositionalo naso vaso nix’Ç ù z#Ä€0œ   ñ  €€˜¦„$~€‚ÿ €€˜¦„$~€‚ÿ€€˜¦„$~‚ÿ€(€˜¦„$~‚ÿÿÿDativenamvamim›!g ”z#Ä€Bœ   ñ  €€˜¦„$~€‚ÿ €€˜¦„$~€‚ÿ€,€˜¦„$~‚ÿ€8€˜¦„$~‚ÿÿÿInstrumentaln@miv@mi$mi[ù û@H ^€'€¤„$~€‚‚‚€‚€€€€€‚‚‚€‚€‚ÿIn the following sentence, the pronoun I is the subject of the sentence, and is in the nominative case, while the pronoun she, as the direct object, is in the accusative:Q l[bl^ e`. ( I love her.)The Reflexive PronounThe reflexive pronoun always refers back to the nearest su”û@ÚÊbject. Since it cannot be a subject itself, there is no nominative form. It means: 'myself, yourself, himself/herself/itself, themselves.', depending on its antecedent. It does not change for gender or number. It declines as follows:*”%A' €€¤„$~€‚ÿš*û@¿Ap#°€T¥î €€˜¦ÿ €€˜¦„$~€‚ÿ€€˜¦„$~ÿ&€€¦„$~‚€€‚ÿÿÿCaseThe reflexive pronoun "seb*"x%A7B[#†€:¥î €€¦„$~ÿ €€˜¦„$~€‚ÿ€€˜¦„$~‚ÿÿÿNominativeno nominativef¿ABQ#r€*¥î  €€˜¦„$~€‚ÿ&€€˜¦„$~€€‚ÿÿÿAccusativeseb*d7BCQ#r€&¥î  €€˜¦„$~€‚ÿ&€€˜¦„$~€€‚ÿÿÿGenitiveseb*kBlCQ#r€4¥î  €€˜¦„$~€‚ÿ&€ €˜¦„$~€€‚ÿÿÿPrepositionalo seb&bCÎCQ#r€"¥î  €€˜¦„$~€‚ÿ&€€˜¦„$~€€‚ÿÿÿDativeseb&olC=DQ#r€<¥î  €€˜¦„$~€‚ÿ&€€˜¦„$~€€‚ÿÿÿInstrumentalsob%j/sob%[GÎC„FE X€€¤„$~€‚‚€€€€€‚‚‚€‚€‚‚‚ÿOn@ kup$la seb& n%vye t)fli. ( She bought (for) herself some new shoes)Possessive PronounsPossessive pronouns show to whom something belongs. They answer the question - "whose?". In English, they are: "my, our, your, his/her/its, their." In Russian, possessive pronouns agree with the noun they modify in gender, number and case. Like plural adjectives, plural possessive pronouns show only number (plural) and case, not gender.The nominative, singular forms of these possessive pronouns are:*=D®F' €€¤„$~€‚ÿ#„F-G\#ˆ€F“¥ €€˜¦ÿ&€€˜¦„$~€€‚ÿ€€˜¦„$~‚ÿÿÿmoj1st person, singular (my)s%®F GN#l€J“¥ &€€˜¦„$~€€‚ÿ€€˜¦„$~‚ÿÿÿtvoj2nd person, singular( your)o!-GHN#l€B“¥ &€€˜¦„$~€€‚ÿ€€˜¦„$~‚ÿÿÿnaw1st person, plural (our)p" GHN#l€D“¥ &€€˜¦„$~€€‚ÿ€€˜¦„$~‚ÿÿÿvaw2nd person, plural (your)1HþHN#l€b“¥ &€€˜¦„$~€€‚ÿ€€˜¦„$~‚ÿÿÿeg%, e`, ix3rd person (his/its, her, their)}/H{IN#l€^“¥ &€€˜¦„$~€€‚ÿ€€˜¦„$~‚ÿÿÿsvoj"one's own" - all persons and gendersoGþHêI( €Ž€¤„$~€‚‚ÿThe following sets of possessive pronouns have similar declensions:|F{IfJ6 <€Œ€¤„~€€€€€€‚ÿsvoj, tvoj, moj. Also, naw and vaw share the same declension.yQêIßJ( €¢€¤„$~€‚‚ÿTo modify a masculine noun (Animate/Inanimate choice in the Accusative case):ãIfJÂKš#’Š² — © Ž ú €€˜¦€‚ÿ€€˜¦ÿ€€˜‚ÿ€4€˜‚ÿ€H€˜‚ÿ€f€˜‚ÿ€v€˜‚ÿÿÿNominativeAccusativeGenitivePrepositionalDativeInstrumentalÔ-ßJ–L§#ZŠ² — © Ž ú €€˜ÿ€€˜¦€‚ÿ€€˜¦ÿ€€˜‚ÿ€&€˜‚ÿ€4€˜‚ÿ€D€˜‚ÿ€N€˜‚ÿÿÿmojmoeg%/mojmoeg%o mo`mmojmo$mÛ4ÂKqM§#hŠ² — © Ž ú €€˜ÿ€€˜¦€‚ÿ€€˜¦ÿ€€˜‚ÿ€(€˜‚ÿ€8€˜‚ÿ€J€˜‚ÿ€Z€˜‚ÿÿÿnawn@wego/nawn@wegoo n@wemn@wemun@wimH–L¹M) "€>€¤„$~€‚‚‚ÿTo modify a feminine noun:ãIqMœNš#’Š² — © Ž … €€˜¦€‚ÿ€€˜¦ÿ€€˜‚ÿ€4€˜‚ÿ€H€˜‚ÿ€f€˜‚ÿ€v€˜‚ÿÿÿNominativeAccusativeGenitivePrepositionalDativeInstrumentalÎ'¹MjO§#NŠ² — © Ž … €€˜ÿ€€˜¦€‚ÿ€€˜¦ÿ€€˜‚ÿ€€˜‚ÿ€&€˜‚ÿ€6€˜‚ÿ€B€˜‚ÿÿÿmo*mo^mo&jo mo&jmo&jmo&jØ.œNN€ª#$\Š² — © Ž … €€˜ÿ€€˜¦€‚ÿ€€˜¦ÿ€€˜‚ÿ€€˜‚ÿ€,€˜‚ÿ€>€˜‚jON€ÚÊÿ€L€˜€‚ÿÿÿn@wan@wun@wejo n@wejn@wejn@wejFjO”€) "€:€¤„$~€‚‚‚ÿTo modify a neuter noun:ãIN€wš#’Š² — © Ž … €€˜¦€‚ÿ€€˜¦ÿ€€˜‚ÿ€4€˜‚ÿ€H€˜‚ÿ€f€˜‚ÿ€v€˜‚ÿÿÿNominativeAccusativeGenitivePrepositionalDativeInstrumentalÑ*”€H‚§#TŠ² — © Ž … €€˜ÿ€€˜¦€‚ÿ€€˜¦ÿ€€˜‚ÿ€€˜‚ÿ€*€˜‚ÿ€:€˜‚ÿ€H€˜‚ÿÿÿmo`mo` moeg%o mo`mmoem)mo$mÚ0w"ƒª#$`Š² — © Ž … €€˜ÿ€€˜¦€‚ÿ€€˜¦ÿ€€˜‚ÿ€€˜‚ÿ€.€˜‚ÿ€@€˜‚ÿ€P€˜€‚ÿÿÿn@wen@wen@wegoo n@wemn@wemun@wimyPH‚›ƒ) "€ €¤„$~€‚‚‚ÿTo modify a plural noun (Animate/Inanimate choice for the Accusative case):ãI"ƒ~„š#’Š² — © Ž … €€˜¦€‚ÿ€€˜¦ÿ€€˜‚ÿ€4€˜‚ÿ€H€˜‚ÿ€f€˜‚ÿ€v€˜‚ÿÿÿNominativeAccusativeGenitivePrepositionalDativeInstrumentalÔ-›ƒR…§#ZŠ² — © Ž … €€˜ÿ€€˜¦€‚ÿ€€˜¦ÿ€€˜‚ÿ€$€˜‚ÿ€0€˜‚ÿ€@€˜‚ÿ€L€˜‚ÿÿÿmo$mo$x/mo$mo$xo mo$xmo$mmo$miÛ4~„-†§#hŠ² — © Ž … €€˜ÿ€€˜¦€‚ÿ€€˜¦ÿ€€˜‚ÿ€*€˜‚ÿ€8€˜‚ÿ€J€˜‚ÿ€X€˜‚ÿÿÿn@win@wix/n@win@wixo n@wixn@wimn@wimi*ÓR…WˆW |€§€¤„$~€‚‚‚‚€€‚‚€€€€‚€€€‚‚€ ‚€‚€‚ÿThe possessive pronouns for "his, her, its and their" are borrowed from the genitive form of the personal pronoun. These do not agree with the noun they modify. Instead, they reflect the gender and number of their antecedent (as in English).eg%, e`, ix (his/its, her, their) On zn@et e` br@ta.(He knows her brother.)Interrogative/Relative Pronouns These pronouns can either ask a question or act as the subject of a clause in a sentence. *¨-†Š‚ Ò€Q€¤„$~€‚‚€€‚‚€‚€€€€€€€€‚€‚€€€€€€€€€€€€€‚‚€€‚ÿThe interrogative/relative pronouns include:kto, hto, hej, kak%j, kot%ryjwho, what, whose, what (as an adjective), whichKto napis@l "Prestupl&nie i nakaz@nie"? (Who wrote Crime and Punishment?)|tu kn$gu napis@l tot 'e s@myj pis@tel;, kot%ryj napis@l "Br@t;q Karam@zovy". (This book was written by the same author who wrote Brothers Karamazov.)The full declension of kto/hto (who/what):*Wˆ«Š' €€¤„$~€‚ÿãIŠŽ‹š#’Šx ^ Š U Š €€˜¦€‚ÿ€€˜¦ÿ€€˜‚ÿ€4€˜‚ÿ€H€˜‚ÿ€f€˜‚ÿ€v€˜‚ÿÿÿNominativeAccusativeGenitivePrepositionalDativeInstrumentalÍ&«Š[Œ§#LŠx ^ Š U Š €€˜ÿ€€˜¦€‚ÿ€€˜¦ÿ€€˜‚ÿ€€˜‚ÿ€(€˜‚ÿ€6€˜‚ÿ€B€˜‚ÿÿÿktokog%kog%o komkom)kemÌ%Ž‹'§#JŠx ^ Š U Š €€˜ÿ€€˜¦€‚ÿ€€˜¦ÿ€€˜‚ÿ€€˜‚ÿ€&€˜‚ÿ€4€˜‚ÿ€@€˜‚ÿÿÿhtohtoheg%o h`mhem)hemÌ™[Œó3 4€3€¤„$~€‚€‚€€‚ÿThe pronoun hej (whose) declines for masculine, feminine, and neuter gender, as well as in the plural. The nominative case forms are as follows:ÖF'ÉŽ#ð€ŒÍ¥ ž ‡ "€€˜˜¦€€‚ÿ€$€˜˜¦ÿ €&€˜˜€€‚ÿ €J€˜˜€€‚ÿ €j€˜˜€€‚ÿÿÿmasculine: hej feminine: h;q neuter: h;` plural: h;i.ƒ$óXÂ_ Œ€I€¤„$~€€€€€‚‚‚€€€€‚‚€‚€‚‚€€‚‚€ ‚‚€‚‚ÿHej #tot z@mok? (Whose castle is this?)The pronouns kak%j (what, or what kind of) and kot%ryj (which, that, who(m)) decline like hard adjectives.Kak@q seg%dnq pog%da?(What is the weather like today?)ÉŽXÂÚÊ3to kart$na, o kot%roj my govor$li.(This is the painting we were talking about.)Demonstrative Pronouns Two common demonstrative pronouns in English are 'this' and 'that'. As in Russian, these words can be used to modify a noun or can stand alone. "This is good juice." "This juice is good." In Russian, demonstrative pronouns agree with the noun they modify in gender, number and case when they are used as adjectives. When the equivalent of 'this' is used as the subject, it is always used in the neuter, nominative, singular form and gives the meaning 'This/that is'.'rIÉŽÊÂ) "€’€¤„$~€‚‚‚ÿSome demonstrative pronouns, shown here in the nominative form, are:½/X‡Î#ì€^S| Ž — Ž €€˜€‚ÿ€€˜€‚ÿ€€˜€€‚ÿ€6€˜€€‚ÿ€J€˜€€‚ÿÿÿmasculinefeminineneuterplural™Ê Ä|#È€:S| Ž — Ž €€˜€€‚ÿ€€˜‚ÿ€€˜‚ÿ€&€˜‚ÿ€0€˜‚ÿÿÿthis#tot#ta#to#ti•‡ÃµÄ|#È€2S| Ž — Ž €€˜€€‚ÿ€€˜‚ÿ€€˜‚ÿ€"€˜‚ÿ€*€˜‚ÿÿÿthattottatoteÑ) ĆŨ# RS| Ž — Ž €€˜ÿ$€€˜„$~€€‚ÿ€€˜„$~‚ÿ€ €˜„$~ÿ€"€˜‚ÿ€0€˜€‚ÿ€@€˜€€‚ÿÿÿsuchtak%jtak@qtak%etak$e…$µÄ Æa#’€HŽ €€˜ÿ€€€€‚ÿ€@€ÿ€B€˜€‚ÿÿÿ(Declines as an adjective.)Jú†ÅUÇP n€õ€¤„$~€‚€€€€€‚€€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚‚€‚ÿ3tot bor] byl tak%j vk)snyj! (This borsch was so tasty!)Definitive Pronouns This group of pronouns can also be used alone or to modify a noun. Some definitive pronouns, shown here in the masculine, singular, nominative form are:” ÆéÇt#¸€@“Ž s | €€¤€‚ÿ€€¤ÿ€€‚ÿ€ €‚ÿ€0€€ ‚ÿÿÿves;vs*kijk@'dyjl[b%j¬/UÇ•È}#Ê€^“Ž s | €€ÿ€€¤€‚ÿ€"€¤ÿ€$€‚ÿ€B€‚ÿ€R€‚ÿÿÿall/the whole all kinds of every any^éÇ"É/ .€¼€¤„$~€‚€€‚‚ÿWhile the last three examples decine like adjectives, the nominative forms of ves; are:)•È²Ég#ž€R“Ž s | €€¤€‚ÿ€€¤‚ÿ€.€¤‚ÿ€@€¤‚ÿÿÿmasculine feminine neuter plural„"É6Êj#¤€4“Ž s | €€¤€‚ÿ€€¤‚ÿ€€¤‚ÿ€&€¤€‚ÿÿÿves; vsq vs` vse°²É=ÌW |€a€¤„$~€‚€‚€‚‚€ ‚€‚€€€€€€‚‚€€€‚ÿVse n@wi t[l;p@ny rascvel$ v m@e. (All our tulips bloomed in May.)Negative Pronouns These pronouns act as they do in English with one important exception. Negative pronouns with the prefix "ni-" require the use of the negative particle "ne" (no) or "net"(there is not) in the sentence. Double or triple negatives are poor grammar in English, but required grammar in Russian. Nikt%, nikogd@, ne m%'et zab(t;!Η6Ê Í7 <€/€¤„$~€‚€€€€‚‚‚ÿA literal translation of such a sentence including a negative pronoun would be, "No one cannot never forget!":Some negative pronouns include:Š =Ì•Íj#¤€@“Ž |   €€¤€‚ÿ€€¤‚ÿ€€¤‚ÿ€0€¤€‚ÿÿÿnikt%niht%nikak%jnih&jŒ% Í!Îg#ž€J“Ž |   €€¤€‚ÿ€€¤‚ÿ€&€¤‚ÿ€4€¤‚ÿÿÿno one nothing none nobody's„/•Í¥ÏU x€_€¤„$~€‚€€€€€€€€€€‚‚‚€‚€‚€‚ÿThe first two of these pronouns decline like the relative pronouns kto/hto, while nikak%j declines like an adjective, and nih&j declines like hej, all shown in previous examples.Indefinite Pronouns These pronouns give the meaning of 'some' or 'any' . Some indefinite pronouns are:Ÿ+!ÎPt#¸€V“²   © €€¦€‚ÿ€€¦ÿ€€‚ÿ€,¥ÏPÚÊ€‚ÿ€<€€‚ÿÿÿkt%-tokt%-nibud;ht%-toht%-nibud;©,¥Ïù}#Ê€X“²   © €€ÿ€€¦€‚ÿ€€¦ÿ€€‚ÿ€*€‚ÿ€B€‚ÿÿÿsomeone anyone something anything*P#' €€¤„$~€‚ÿ9ù\1”y…q…\îHNumerals4 #) "€€Œ˜¤„$~€‚ÿNumeralsÑ\¡@ N€£€¤„$~€‚‚‚‚€€‚‚€ ‚€‚€‚‚ÿOrdinal NumeralsAll ordinal numerals act as adjectives and agree with the noun they modify in gender, number and case. For example, first, second, third are presented below in masculine, nominative, singular form:p&rvyj, vtor%j, tr&tijCardinal NumeralsCardinal numerals are divided into groups, each of which has its own set of rules. A summary of the rules governing cardinal numerals and the nouns and adjectives they modify is presented below.Ó¤0 .€§€¤„$~€‚€€‚‚ÿ1. Od$nThe numeral 1 agrees with the noun it modifies in gender, number and case. When this numeral stands alone it agrees with its antecedent in gender and number. The forms in the nominative case are:¹.¡]‹#æ€\| s |  €€˜¦€€‚ÿ€€˜¦ÿ€€˜€€‚ÿ€4€˜€€‚ÿ€H€˜€€‚ÿÿÿmasculinefeminineneuterplural ¤ý#Ò€>| s | €€˜ÿ€€¦€‚ÿ€€¦ÿ€€‚ÿ€ €‚ÿ€.€€‚ÿÿÿod$n odn@ odn% odn$÷Å]ô2 2€‹€¤„$~€‚€€€‚ÿThe plural form of the numeral 1 is used to modify nouns which only have a plural form. The noun, n%'nicy, only has a plural form. As with the singular forms, the meaning can also be only.‰Rý}7 >€¤€˜¦„$~€€€€€€‚ÿNa p@rte ost@lis; odn$ n%'nicy. (Only the scissors remained on the desk.) ÜôŠ 1 0€¹€¤„$~€‚€‚€‚‚ÿAgreement with NounsStarting with the numeral 2, it is important to note whether the numeral is in the nominative case (or the identical inanimate accusative form) or in one of the other cases, referred to as oblique cases. Numerals in the nominative or inanimate accusative case determine the case of the adjectives and nouns they modify. Numerals in oblique (animate accusative, genitive, prepositional, dative, instrumental) cases agree with the noun they modify.Ô‘}^ C T€#€¤„$~€‚€€€€€€€‚€‚‚ÿ2, 3, 4 dva (the masculine and neuter form) /dve (the feminine form of dva), tri, het(reThe numeral 2 has both a masculine and a feminine form, as noted above. When 2, 3 or 4 is in the nominative or inanimate accusative form, the case of the noun and any modifying adjectives are governed by these numerals. They require that the noun they modify be in the genitive singular form. The adjective, however, is in the genitive plural for masculine and neuter nouns and in the nominative plural for those modifying feminine nouns. As with all numerals in oblique cases, the case of the numeral is governed by the case of the noun it modifies.¢FŠ \ †€€¤„$~€‚€€‚€€€‚‚€€€€€€€€‚‚€€‚‚ÿHet(re xrust@l;nyx bok@la wamp@nskogo sverk@li na stol&.(Four crystal goblets of champagne sparkled on the table.)The noun modified by the numeral het(re is bok@la; it is in the singular genitive form. The modifying adjective is xrust@l;nyx. Since bok@l is a masculine noun, the adjective is put into the genitive plural form.5-999 pqt;-devqt;s%t devqn%sto d&vqt;These numerals require the noun and adjective to be in the genitive plural case (when the numeral is in the nominative form). The exception to this rule is described in the following paragraph.A^ MAA P€€¤„$~€‚€‚€‚‚€€‚‚‚€€‚ÿCompound Numerals ending in 1, 2, 3, 4Compound numerals ending in 1 (i.e., 41, 571, 751) take a singular noun and a singular verb and predicate. Compound numerals ending in 2, 3 and 4 (MA#i.e., 62, 823, 794) follow the same rules as for the numerals they end in, i.e., 2, 3, 4. (See above.)1,000, 1,000,000, 1,000,000,000 t(sqha, milli%n, milli@rdThese numerals require the genitive plural of the noun and adjective regardless of their own case.Milli%n merc@[]ix zv`zd v(sypalis; na nohn%e n&bo. U¢C@ N€+€¤„$~€‚‚‚‚€ ‚€‚€‚€‚€‚‚ÿ(A million shimmering stars spilled out into the night sky.) Both the noun and its modifying adjective are in the genitive plural form.Collective Numerals2, 3, 4...10 dv%e, tr%e, h&tvero,...d&sqteroThe collective numerals for 2, 3, 4...10 have specific, yet fairly uncommon uses. The most frequently seen use of collective numerals is with nouns that have no singular form. Collective numerals require the noun and a modifying adjective to be in the genitive plural when they themselves are in the nominative form.W&MAùC1 2€L€˜¦„$~€€€€‚ÿTr%e ves`lyx reb*t str%ili plot.4â¢C-FR r€Å€¤„$~€‚‚€€‚‚‚‚€€‚€€€‚‚€€€€‚ÿ(A threesome of merry kids were building a raft).%ba/%be (masculine/ neuter & feminine forms of 'both')The words for ' both' behave like the numeral 2 and take the genitive singular of the noun and a plural adjective.5be m@len;kie d&vohki ris)[t kart$nki.(Both little girls are drawing pictures).The noun d&vohki is in the genitive singular form, while the adjective which modifies it, m@len;kie, is nominative plural as required for modifying feminine nouns.KùCxF0 0€6€¤„$~€‚‚€‚€‚ÿIndefinite Numerals´2-F,G‚#Ô€do    Ž Ž €€¦€‚ÿ€ €¦ÿ€€‚ÿ€&€‚ÿ€:€‚ÿ€P€‚ÿÿÿfew many/much several how many so many¿.xFëG‘#ò€\o    Ž Ž €€ÿ€€¦€‚ÿ€€¦ÿ€€‚ÿ€ €‚ÿ€6€‚ÿ€H€€ ‚ÿÿÿm@lomn%gon&skol;kosk%l;kost%l;koÙ,GîH* "€³€¤„$~€‚‚‚ÿSome grammar books will describe these words of quantity as indefinite numerals, and others as adverbs of measure. These words are used with the genitive singular or plural of the noun, depending on the context.6ëG$I1š /¡$IUI¸ƒVerbs1îHUI) "€€Œ˜¤„$~€‚ÿVerbsn;$IÃL3 4€w€¤„$~€‚‚‚€‚€‚‚ÿVerbs express action, existence or occurrence. A sentence is not complete without a verb, or implied verb. In Russian, the present tense of the verb 'to be - is, are' is usually omitted, replaced by a dash or merely implied. In general, Russian verbs act as verbs do in English. There is, however, one important concept that must be understood to understand the use of Russian verbs.NEW TERMINOLOGY: Verbal Aspect - Perfective and ImperfectiveEvery verb in Russian has either the imperfective or the perfective aspect. The imperfective verb denotes the process of an action or a state without any reference to its completion, or refers to repeated action. For example, in English, the following sentences have an imperfective meaning: 'Yesterday I was writing letters.' or 'I always write letters in Russian.'ÚUI†M) €5€¤„$~€‚‚ÿThe perfective verb denotes an action which has been completed in the past or will be completed in the future. Perfective verbs have only two tenses:ÑVÃLWN{#Æ€¬œ¡ €€˜¦ÿ €€˜¦„$~€‚ÿ€ €˜¦„$~ÿ<€"€˜„$~€€€€€€‚ÿÿÿPast tense: Vher@ q napis@la em) pis;m%.(I wrote him a letter yesterday.)Ù\†M0O}#Ê€¸œ¡ €€˜„$~ÿ €€˜¦„$~€‚ÿ€"€˜¦„$~ÿ<€$€˜„$~€€€€€€‚ÿÿÿFuture tense:Z@vtra q napiw) em) pis;m%. (I will write him a letter tomorrow.) ÞWNN4 6€½€¤„$~€‚‚‚‚‚€ ‚€‚ÿBoth of these sentences in English have a perfective meaning, stressing completion of the action.Usually, the imperfective form is unprefixed and the pe0ONîHrfective form has a prefix. This is the basic concept of verbal aspect. You will see that every verb is described in the Comments Window as imperfective or perfective. Pay attention to the many shades of meaning that can be expressed through the imperfective and perfective aspects of different verbs.Infinitive s)0OÁ‚J b€S€¤„$~€€€€€€€€€€€€‚‚ÿThe infinitive is considered the rootword of a verb. In English, the infinitive is expressed as 'to read, to eat,' etc. as in the sentence "I love to read." Infinitives are recognized in Russian by the ending -t;. For example: hit@t; (to read), tancev@t; (to dance), byt; (to be)÷xN¸ƒ ΀ð€˜¦„$~ãÏÚ=€‰€‚ãf É߀‰€‚ãóT €‰€‚ãj§—¶€‰€‚ãÜæ±.€‰€‚ã3¾úÍ€‰€‚ãåĶ€‰€‚ÿReflexive Verbs Present Tense Past Tense Future Tense ImperativeGerunds Participles @Á‚øƒ1¾q…bøƒ3„ÀˆReflexive Verbs;¸ƒ3„) "€$€Œ˜¤„$~€‚ÿReflexive Verbsé¶øƒ†3 4€m€¤„$~€‚‚€ €‚‚‚‚ÿMany verbs in Russian have a reflexive form which is formed by adding the following ending to the infinitive:-sqReflexive verbs are intransitive verbs, meaning there can be no direct object of a reflexive verb. Often, the subject and object of the verb are the same. Besides this primary meaning, reflexive verbs can describe actions directed to each other. Other reflexive verbs refer to feelings or conditions. For example:}3„™†_#Ž€<ÇÞ €€¤ÿ*€€¤„$~€€€ ‚ÿ€€¤„$~€‚ÿÿÿm(t;sqto wash oneselfq† ‡R#t€>ÇÞ *€€¤„$~€€€‚ÿ€ €¤„$~€‚ÿÿÿvstr&tit;sqto meet withj™†t‡O#n€6ÇÞ *€€¤„$~€€€‚ÿ€ €¤„$~‚ÿÿÿstanov$t;sqto becomeª€ ‡ˆ* "€€¤„$~€‚‚‚ÿThe reflexive ending is applied to all verb forms. When the verb form ends in a vowel, the reflexive ending is as follows:{t‡™ˆ\#ˆ€>ÇÛ €€¤ÿ*€€¤„$~€€€‚ÿ€ €¤„$~‚ÿÿÿstanovl^s;I am becoming'ˆÀˆ% €€„$~€ÿ> ™ˆþˆ1r¡Âÿÿÿÿþˆ6ÈPresent Tense{KÀˆy‹0 .€—€¤„$~€‚€‚€‚ÿPresent TenseThe present tense exists only for imperfective verbs. Since perfective verbs refer generally to the completion of an action, they only have a past or future meaning. Imperfective verbs, on the other hand, express the process of carrying out an action. One important difference between the use of present tense verbs in Russian and English is how the action in a sentence like 'I have been exercising.' is expressed. This action started in the past and is continuing in the present. In Russian, this idea is expressed with the imperfective present form of a verb.[+þˆÔ0 .€W€¤„$~€‚€‚€‚ÿ1st Conjugation and 2nd Conjugation A verb conjugation consists of the six forms of a verb in the present tense that correspond to 1st, 2nd and 3rd person, singular and plural (in English, 'I, you, he/she/it, we, you, they). Russian verbs fall (generally) into one of two conjugation patterns. These are described as 1st and 2nd conjugations. There are many spelling rules which affect verb conjugation and there are irregular verbs which have unique conjugations, but even most of these verbs can be described as either 1st or 2nd conjugation. 5ýy‹À8 >€û€¤„$~€‚€€€€‚‚‚‚ÿThe distinctive difference between the two conjugations is the ending of the 3rd person plural form of the verb: "-[t/-ut" for 1st conjugation, and "-qt/-at" for the 2nd conjugation. As mentioned in the discussion of verbal aspect, (almost) every verb has both an imperfective and perfective form.The verb for 'to make (or do)' is an example of a 1st conjugation verb. The verb for 'to speak, talk' is a 2nd conjugation verb. The following two conjugations are for the imperfective presentÔÀÀˆ tense.P!ÔeÀ/ .€B€¤„$~€‚€€‚‚ÿinfinitive: d⪫ (to do)ÏJÀ4Á…#Ú€”öñ Í ú €€˜¦ÿ €€˜¦„$~€‚ÿ€4€˜¦„$~‚ÿ€N€˜¦„$~‚ÿ€z€˜¦„$~‚ÿÿÿ1st, 2nd, 3rd singularTranslation1st, 2nd, 3rd pluralTranslation¿?eÀóÁ€#Ѐ~öñ Í ú &€€˜¦„$~€€‚ÿ€€˜¦„$~‚ÿ&€:€˜¦„$~€€‚ÿ€T€˜¦„$~‚ÿÿÿq d&la[I am doing, I domy d&laemwe are doing, we doÊJ4Á½Â€#Ѐ”öñ Í ú &€€˜¦„$~€€‚ÿ€€˜¦„$~‚ÿ&€J€˜¦„$~€€‚ÿ€f€˜¦„$~‚ÿÿÿty d&laew;you are doing, you dovy d&laeteyou are doing, you doËKóÁˆÃ€#Ѐ–öñ Í ú &€€˜¦„$~€€‚ÿ€.€˜¦„$~‚ÿ&€Z€˜¦„$~€€‚ÿ€v€˜¦„$~‚ÿÿÿon, on@, on% d&laethe, she, it is doingon$ d&la[tthey are doing\,½ÂäÃ0 0€X€¤„$~€‚‚€€‚‚ÿinfinitive: govor$t; (to speak/talk)ñLˆÃÕÄ¥#˜öñ Í ñ €€˜¤ÿ €€˜¤„$~€‚ÿ€4€˜¤„$~ÿ€6€˜„$~‚ÿ€P€˜„$~ÿ€R€˜¤„$~‚ÿ€~€˜¤„$~‚ÿÿÿ1st, 2nd, 3rd singularTranslation1st, 2nd, 3rd pluralTranslationýMäÃÒÅ°#0šöñ Í ñ &€€˜¤„$~€€‚ÿ€€˜¤„$~ÿ€€˜„$~‚ÿ€H€˜„$~ÿ&€J€˜¤„$~€€‚ÿ€f€˜¤„$~ÿ€h€˜„$~‚ÿÿÿq govor^I am speaking/talkingmy govor$mwe are speaking/talkingVÕÄèÆÀ#P¬öñ Í ñ €€˜„$~ÿ&€€˜¤„$~€€‚ÿ€ €˜¤„$~ÿ€"€˜„$~‚ÿ€V€˜„$~ÿ&€X€˜¤„$~€€‚ÿ€v€˜¤„$~ÿ€x€˜„$~‚ÿÿÿty govor$w;you are speaking/talkingvy govor$teyou are speaking/talking'gÒÅÈÀ#PÎöñ Í ñ €€˜„$~ÿ&€€˜¤„$~€€‚ÿ€2€˜¤„$~ÿ€4€˜„$~‚ÿ€v€˜„$~ÿ&€x€˜¤„$~€€‚ÿ€–€˜¤„$~ÿ€˜€˜„$~‚ÿÿÿon, on@, on% govor$the, she, it is speaking/talkingon$ govor*tthey are speaking/talking'èÆ6È% €€„$~€ÿ; ÈqÈ1JbZ† qȧÈÀÍPast Tense6 6ȧÈ) "€€Œ˜¤„$~€‚ÿPast TenseòÈqÈ™É* "€‘€¤„$~€‚‚‚ÿThe past tense is formed by removing the infinitive ending and adding the correct past tense ending to denote that the subject of the verb is masculine, feminine, neuter, or plural. For example:©8§ÈBÊq#²€pÿm e ‡ €€¦€‚ÿ€:€¦ÿ€<€‚ÿ€P€‚ÿ€`€‚ÿÿÿinfinitive > masculinefeminineneuterplural¸2™Éúʆ#Ü€dÿm e ‡ €€ÿ$€€¦€€€‚ÿ€0€¦ÿ€2€‚ÿ€B€‚ÿ€R€€‚ÿÿÿd⪫ > d&lald&lalad&lalod&laliQBÊKÍ8 >€3€¤„$~€‚‚‚‚€€€€‚ÿThe past tense is formed from both imperfective and perfective verbs with the general difference in meaning of 'an action that was performed in the past' and 'an action that was completed in the past.' The imperfective past tense can express such variations as: 'I used to read from time to time.' and 'I read for a while and then stopped reading.' Both of these sentences express an action that started and stopped in the past.Imperfective:V wkole q izuh@la angl$jskij qz(k. ( I studied/used to study English in school.) u?úÊÀÍ6 <€~€¤„$~€‚‚€€€€‚‚ÿPerfective:Sob@ka zaryh@la. (The dog began to growl.)= KÍýÍ1€Âª ÿÿÿÿýÍLFuture Tense/áÀÍ8N j€Ã€¤„$~€‚€‚€‚‚‚‚€€ €‚€€‚‚‚€‚€‚ÿFuture TenseFuture Tense: PerfectiveThe future tense of a perfective verb is formed by following the present tense conjugation. Compare the present imperfective and future perfective forms:Q hit@[. (I am reading)Q prohit@[. ((I will read) with the emphasis on the completion of the action)Future Tense: ImperfectiveThe future tense of an imperfective verb is formed with the addition of the future form of the verbýÍ8ÀÍ 'to be' plus the imperfective infinitive.,ýÍd( €€¤„$~€‚‚ÿæ\8JŠ#䀸ÛÛ Ü L €€¦ÿ €€¦„$~€‚‚ÿ€B€¦„$~‚‚ÿ €^€¦„$~‚€‚ÿ €š€¦„$~€‚‚ÿÿÿ1st, 2nd, 3rd personsingularTranslation1st, 2nd, 3rd personpluralTranslationòbd<#ð€ÄÛÛ Ü L €€¦„$~ÿ&€€˜¦„$~€€‚ÿ€&€˜¦„$~‚ÿ&€`€˜¦„$~€€‚ÿ€†€˜¦„$~‚ÿÿÿq b)du d⪫I am going to do (shall do)my b)dem d⪫we are going to do (shall do)éiJ%€#ЀÒÛÛ Ü L &€€˜¦„$~€€‚ÿ€*€˜¦„$~‚ÿ&€j€˜¦„$~€€‚ÿ€’€˜¦„$~‚ÿÿÿty b)dew; d⪫you are going to do (shall do)vy b)dete d⪫you are going to do (shall do)û{< €#ЀöÛÛ Ü L &€€˜¦„$~€€‚ÿ€<€˜¦„$~‚ÿ&€Š€˜¦„$~€€‚ÿ€´€˜¦„$~‚ÿÿÿon, on@, on% b)det d⪫he, she, it is going to do (shall do)oni b)dut d⪫they are going to do (shall do),%L( €€¤„$~€‚‚ÿ; ‡1HZ†^ ‡½ÔImperative6 L½) "€€Œ˜¤„$~€‚ÿImperative§‡Ôp ®€O€¤„$~€‚‚€€€ ‚€€‚‚‚€€€‚€‚‚‚‚‚€€€€€‚‚€‚€€€€‚ÿThe imperative is formed by dropping the ending from the 2nd person singular form of the present tense and adding the imperative ending:-i singular-ite pluralIf the stem ends in a vowel, add:-j singular-jte pluralPresent > ImperativeSingular:Ty govor$w; (you are saying/you say) > govor$! (speak!)Plural and polite singular:Vy govor$te (you are saying/you say) > govor$te! (speak!)8½ 1~ª) AŽ Gerunds5 ÔA* $€€Œ˜¤„$~€‚‚ÿGerundsc Î * "€Ç€¤„$~€‚‚‚ÿGerunds are also called verbal adverbs in Russian because they act as adverbs and are formed from verbs. Imperfective gerunds have the meaning in English of the 'ing' form of a verb. 'She sat, reading her book.' Perfective gerunds have the meaning found in 'having (done something).' 'Having finished the book, she went to the store.' Gerunds are not formed from all verbs or in both aspects. Like adverbs, gerunds are indeclinable. They do not change their form.Imperfective gerunds, sometimes called present gerunds, are formed by adding the following ending to the present tense stem of the verb:À]AŽ c ”€»€¤„$~€€€€€‚‚‚‚€€€€€€€‚‚‚€€‚‚€€€‚‚‚ÿQ hit@[ > hit@q(I read > reading)Perfective gerunds, sometimes called past gerunds, are formed by adding an ending to the past tense stem.Q prohit@l > prohit@v, prohit@vwi(I read > having read)-wiThis ending is always used when the past tense stem ends in a consonant.On isp`k > isp`kwi.(He baked > having baked)< Î Ê 1^Š‡ Ê  ùJParticiples9Ž  * $€€Œ˜¤„$~€‚‚ÿParticiplesÐÊ 2 2€¡€¤„$~€‚‚€‚€‚‚ÿParticiples are formed from verbs and decline like adjectives. They have an adjectival use in a sentence, usually translated as an adjectival clause in English. There are both active and passive participles, giving the meaning of being the doer or the object of an action.Present Active Participle This is formed by replacing the final letter of the 3rd person plural present form with the correct ending for the masculine, feminine, neuter and plural :z _#Ž€6¥0 €€¤ÿ*€€¤„$~€€€‚ÿ€€¤„$~€‚ÿÿÿhit@[t(they read )u#ôR#t€F¥0 *€€¤„$~€€€‚ÿ€€¤„$~€‚ÿÿÿhit@[]ij(he who is reading)v$jR#t€H¥0 *€€¤„$~€€€‚ÿ€€¤„$~€‚ÿÿÿhit@[]aq(she who is reading)x&ô @R#t€L¥0 *€€¤„$~€€€‚ÿ€€¤„$~€‚ÿÿÿhit@[]ee(it, which is reading)j @Ž x&j„@R#t€L¥0 *€€¤„$~€€€‚ÿ€€¤„$~€‚ÿÿÿhit@[]ie(they who are reading)&Ú @ªAL f€µ€¤„$~€‚€€€€€‚‚€‚€‚€€ €‚‚ÿD@ma, hit@[]aq gaz&tu, vdrug rassme*las;. (The lady who is reading the newspaper suddenly burst out laughing.)Past Active Participle This is formed by adding the -vwij ending to the past tense stem:›*„@EBq#²€T¥ ˆ — €€¦€‚ÿ€€¦ÿ€€‚ÿ€0€‚ÿ€B€‚ÿÿÿmasculine feminine neuter plural¯/ªAôB€#Ѐ^¥ ˆ — €€ÿ€€¦€‚ÿ€€¦ÿ€€‚ÿ€0€‚ÿ€F€€‚ÿÿÿhit@vwij hit@vwaq hit@vwee hit@vwie³EBE\ †€g€¤„$~€‚€€€ ‚€‚‚€€€€€€€€€‚‚€‚€‚ÿPast Active Participles can be formed from both perfective and imperfective verbs to convey the different meanings of an action completed in the past or covering a span of time in the past. Below is an example of a past active participle formed from a perfective verb, prohit@t; (to read through):masculine, feminine, neuter, plural:prohit@vwij, prohit@vwaq, prohit@vwee, prohit@vwiePresent Passive Participle 2ËôB5Gg œ€—€¤„$~€‚€€‚‚‚€€€€€€€€‚€‚€€€€€€€€‚ÿThis is formed by adding the adjectival ending to the 1st person plural form of an imperfective verb, in this case, hit@t; (to read):masculine, feminine, neuter, plural:hit@emyj, hit@emaq, hit@emoe, hit@emye Note that the meaning of the passive participle is qiute different from that of the active participle: while the present active hit@[]ij means one who is reading, the present passive hit@emyj means that which is being read.NEƒG/ .€>€¤„$~€‚€‚€‚ÿPast Passive Participle Î5G„H3 4€€¤†$~Õ€‚‚‚€€‚ÿThese participles are formed only from perfective and transitive (those which require an object) verbs. There is both a long form and short form (for predicate use).Infinitive: narisov@t; > to drawGÁƒGËJ† Ú€ƒ€¤„$~€‚‚€€‚€€‚€‚€‚€€€‚€‚‚€€€€€€€€€‚€€€€€€€€€‚ÿmasculine, feminine, neuter, plural:Short form : naris%van, naris%vana, naris%vano, naris%vany (has (have) been drawn)Long form: naris%vannyj, naris%vannaq, naris%vannoe, naris%vannye (has (have) been drawn)Infinitive: ub$t; > to killmasculine, feminine, neuter, plural: Short form: ub$t, ub$ta, ub$to, ub$ty (has (have) been killed)Long form : ub$tyj, ub$taq, ub$toe, ub$tye (has (have) been killed').„HùJ) "€ €¤„$~€‚‚‚ÿ8ËJ1K1š)^Š1KdKÍNAdverbs3 ùJdK) "€€Œ˜¤„$~€‚ÿAdverbs9ü1KM= H€ù€¤„$~€€€‚‚‚€€€€‚ÿAs in English, adverbs can modify a verb, an adjective or another adverb. Adverbs do not decline in Russian and are usually easy to spot by the ending -o, although some adverbs are formed differently. Adverbs are formed by removing the adjectival ending from an adjective and replacing it with the adverbial ending.Many adverbs resemble the short form, neuter form of the adjective. The only difference is in their use.kras$vyj (adjective for 'beautiful') > kras$vo (adverb for 'beautifully')0ÎdKÍNb ’€€¤„$~€€€€€€‚€‚€€€€€€‚€‚€€€€€‚ÿxor%wij (adjective for good) > xorow% (adverb for good, well)On@ %hen; xor%waq pev$ca. (She is a very good singer.) Adjective.On@ po`t %hen; xorow% (She sings very well.) Adverb.= M O1BŠ‡Ò  OBOì‚Prepositions8ÍNBO) "€€Œ˜¤„$~€‚ÿPrepositionsN OÍ1 0€€¤„$~€‚‚€‚€‚ÿPrepositions are used with nouns in every case except the nominative. They are identified in all Transparent Language Russian Titles by theBOÍÍNir meaning and the case they require. Many prepositions can be followed by different cases to give different meanings.Prepositions with Verbs of MotionYou will see that prepositions are identified by location or direction. This is an important distinction in Russian because, very often, the same preposition used with different cases will indicate either the location of an activity or the direction in which a verb of motion is occurring.ÒBOì‚M h€¥€¤„$~€‚€€€€€‚‚‚€€€€€‚‚‚‚ÿQ sid&la na st)le.I was sitting on the chair. Uses prepositional case to indicate location.Q s&la na stul.I sat down on the chair. Uses accusative case to indicate motion toward something.: Í&ƒ1f^Š€ &ƒ[ƒŠParticles5 ì‚[ƒ) "€€Œ˜¤„$~€‚ÿParticles ¯&ƒd…Z ‚€_€¤„$~€‚‚€‚€€‚‚€€€€€€‚‚€‚€‚€‚‚€‚ÿParticles are words which add different shades of meaning to other words in a sentence or to the sentence as a whole.Negative Particlesne, niNegates the meaning of the word that follows with the general meaning 'not'.Q ne zn@[, hto d⪫. (I dont know what to do)Interrogative Particlesli, r@zve, neu'&liThese particles add an interrogative meaning to the sentence with no real translation of their own.8Ø[ƒœ‡` Ž€±€¤„$~€€€‚€‚€‚€€€€€‚‚€€€€€€€€‚ÿHit@la li ona Dosto&vskogo? (Has she read Dostoyevsky?) Gives a somewhat sceptical tone, expressing doubt that she has read him.Neu'&li vy ne hit@li Dosto&vskogo? (Could it really be true that you have never read Dostoyevsky?) A tone of incredulity.R@zve vy ne shit@ete ego s@mym vel$kim r)sskim pis@telem? (Dont you consider him the greatest Russian writer?) A tone of surprise that anyone wouldnt think so. Similar to neu'&li, but not as strong.bÑd…þ‰‘ ð€£€¤„$~€‚€‚€‚‚€‚‚€‚€€€€€€€€€€‚‚€€‚‚€€€€€€€€‚€‚€‚‚€€€€‚ÿEmphatic ParticlesThese parts of speech add emotional impact to the sentence meaning.'e, '(adds emphasis to other words)Pohem) 'e vy udivl*etes;? On 'e sam prizn@lsq, hto vsegd@ l'`t. (But why are you surprised? He even admitted himself that he constantly lies.)d@'e'even'On men* d@'e ne uzn@l! ( He didnt even recognize me!)ved;after allObqz@tel;no poset$te Od&ssu- ved; #to od$n iz s@myx oba*tel;nyx gorod%v v m$re!’dœ‡Š. ,€È€¤„$~€€€‚‚ÿ(You simply must visit Odessa- after all, it is one of the most charming cities in the world!): þ‰ÊŠ1fp ÿÿÿÿÊŠÿŠMÁSentences5 ŠÿŠ) "€€Œ˜¤„$~€‚ÿSentences'ÕÊŠ&R r€«€¤„$~€€€€€€€‚€‚€‚€€€€‚‚‚‚ÿSentences are made up of one or more clauses. A clause consists of a subject (a noun or pronoun) and a predicate (what is said about the noun or pronoun). The predicate contains a verb. D&vohka be'$t. (A girl is running.)In this simple sentence, D&vohka is the subject and be'$t is the predicate.Adjectives or nouns used along with the verb in order to describe what is being asserted about someone or something, are in the predicative position. FÕÿŠlq °€«€¤„$~€‚€€€€€‚€€€€‚‚€€€€€‚€€€€‚‚€€€€‚ÿD&vohka byl@ xor%wej uhen$cej. (The girl was a good student.)In this sentence uhenicej is a predicate noun.D&vohka byl@ vys%koj. (The girl was tall.)In this sentence vys%koj is a predicate adjective. Nouns or pronouns which are related to the action of the verb or to a preposition are called objects. There are direct and indirect objects. The direct object of a verb is a noun or pronoun which receives the action of a verb directly. Õp&MÁe ˜€á€¤„$~€‚€€€€€‚€€‚‚€€‚€‚€‚€‚€€€€‚‚€‚ÿD&vohka l^bit otc@. (The girl loves her flMÁŠather.)In this sentence otc@ is the direct object of the verb.Some verbs take an indirect object. Indirect objects are sometimes preceded by prepositions.D&vohka da`t kn$gu br@tu.(The girl gives the book to her brother.)In this sentence kn$gu is the direct object and br@tu is the indirect object.= lŠÁ1)Ò > ÿÿÿÿŠÁvÃConjunctions8MÁÂÁ) "€€Œ˜¤„$~€‚ÿConjunctionsc;ŠÁ%Â( €v€R¤„$~€‚ÿConjunctions join words, phrases, clauses and sentences:QôÂÁvÃ] ˆ€é€¤„$~€€€€€€‚€€€€€€‚€€€€€€‚ÿQ sme^s;, a ty pl@hew;. (I am laughing, but you are crying.)Prines$ mne kl[h$ i mo^ s)mku. (Bring me the keys and my purse.)Ona ego prezir@la, potom) hto on byl %hen; gl)pyj. (She despised him because he was very stupid.) > %´Ã1ð€ ¹ƒ ´ÃíìÈInterjections9vÃíÃ) "€ €Œ˜¤„$~€‚ÿInterjectionsh?´ÃUÅ) €€¤„$~€‚‚ÿAn interjection is a word or expression which gives added emotional emphasis in speech. In print an interjection will most likely be followed by an exclamation mark. Interjections can express awe, disgust, pain, and joy. Below are several common Russian interjections with examples of how to use them in a sentence:°0íÃÆ€#Ѐ`…“ ô × €€¤ÿ€€¤„$~€‚ÿ€ €¤„$~‚ÿ€2€¤„$~‚ÿ€F€¤„$~‚ÿÿÿInterjectionMeaningExample TranslationÛ[UÅàÆ€#Ѐ¶…“ ô ×  €€¤„$~€‚‚ÿ€€¤„$~€‚ÿ$€B€¤„$~€€‚ÿ€v€¤„$~€‚ÿÿÿA, Ax,Ojoy;awe; surprise; Ax, kak zdes; kras$vo!Oh, how beautiful it is here!ÜZƼǂ#Ô€´…“ ô ×  €€¤„$~€‚‚ÿ € €¤„$~€‚‚ÿ$€"€¤„$~€€‚ÿ €p€¤„$~€‚‚ÿÿÿF)disgustF), kakoe otvrat$tel;noe poved&nie!Yuck, what revolting behavior!ÆDàÆ‚È‚#Ô€ˆ…“ ô ×  €€¤„$~€‚‚ÿ € €¤„$~€‚‚ÿ$€&€¤„$~€€‚ÿ €X€¤„$~€‚‚ÿÿÿOxcomplaintOx, 'izn; tak trudn@!Oh, life is so hard!*¼Ç¬È' €€¤„$~€‚ÿ> ‚ÈêÈ1­> èƒ êÈ!ÉÉGrammar Pages7¬È!É' € €Œ˜B˜€‚ÿGrammar Pages6 êÈWÉ+ &€€¸˜ãÃt÷¶€‰‚ÿNumberF!ÉÉ2 4€(€˜ã+† V€‰‚ã‹—4뉂ÿPersonGender7WÉÔÉ1Ô ¹ƒ ‘ ÔÉÊ«Number0 ÉÊ' €€Œ˜B˜€‚ÿNumbern=ÔÉrÊ1 2€z€¸˜€€€€€‚ÿThere are two numbers in Russian: singular and plural.^9ÊÐÊ% €r€˜€‚‚ÿMost nouns in Russian have singular and plural forms:f3rÊ6Ë3 6€f€RÈ€‚€€€€ ‚ÿsem;*, s&m;i ((the) family, (the) families))ÐÊ_Ë& €€R˜€‚ÿF6Ë¥Ë6 <€ €R’„´!€ã´Ö…h€‰€‚ÿSee Nouns)_ËÎË& €€R˜€‚ÿT0¥Ë"Ì$ €`€˜€‚ÿPronouns also have singular and plural forms:)ÎËKÌ& €€R˜€‚ÿ¢["ÌíÌG#^€¶/D€€€€€‚€€€ €€‚ÿÿÿmoj, mo*, mo` (mine [singular, masculine, feminine, neuter])mo$ (mine [plural]) KKÌ8Í6 <€*€R˜€‚€ãìê\U€‰€‚ÿSee Pronouns-íÌeÍ* $€€RÈ„´!€‚ÿyS8ÍÞÍ& €¦€R˜€‚ÿAdjectives and ordinal numerals agree with nouns in number (and also in gender)..eÍ Î+ &€€ R†:å퀂ÿ1ÞÍ‹ÎN#l€bß/» &€€ R€€€‚ÿ€ € R€‚ÿÿÿbol;w%j dom(a/the big house, [masculine])‡3 ÎÏT#x€fß/» 2€€ R€€€€€‚ÿ€(€ R€‚ÿÿÿxor%waq kn$ga(a/the good book [feminine])“9‹Î¥ÏZ#„€rß/» >€€ R€€€€€€€‚ÿ€.€ R€‚ÿÿÿkras$voe %zero(a/the beautiful lake [neuter])„0Ï5T#x€`ß/» 2€€ R€€€€€‚ÿ€"€ R€‚ÿÿÿp*tyj¥Ï5É ur%k(the 5th lesson [masculine])6 ¥Ïk- *€€ R„!€‚€‚ÿSee D5¯3 6€"€RÈ„Æ!ãú³ŽÕ€‰€‚ÿAdjectives Gkö1 2€,€RÈ‚Hã}­B€‰€‚ÿCardinal Numeralœu¯’' €ê€R˜€‚‚ÿVerbs and different verbal forms (present and past participles) agree with the subject of the sentence in number:j9öü1 2€r€RÈ€ ‚€€‚€‚ÿMy pojd`m na progulku. (We will go for a walk.)ÖŠ’ÒL f€€R˜€‚€€€€€€€€€€€€‚ÿPojd`m is 1st person plural, future tense, perfective of the verb pojt$. It agrees in number with the personal pronoun my.6 ü- *€€ R„!€‚€‚ÿSee ; ÒC/ .€€RÈãÉØ€‰€‚ÿVerbs ?‚. ,€"€ÈãåĶ€‰€‚ÿParticiples)C«& €€R˜€‚ÿ7‚â1èƒ p âú Person0 «' €€Œ˜B˜€‚ÿPerson §âb ’€O€¸€‚€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€‚ÿGrammatical person indicates the relationship of speaker or writer to the rest of the sentence. First person refers to the speaker or to the speaker group: q, moj, my, naw (I, mine, we, ours). Second person refers to whomever is being spoken to: ty, tvoj, vy, vaw (you, yours). Third person refers to the entity being spoken about: on/ona/ono, ego/e`, on$, ix (he/she/it, his/her/its, they, theirs).*E$ € €¸€‚ÿSee?„1 2€€RÈ‚Hãìê\U€‰€‚ÿPronouns(E¬% €€R˜€‚ÿ‡]„3* $€º€R˜€‚€‚ÿVerbs are inflected (receive different endings) to agree with the person of the subject:~¬±a#’€:í/ñ º *€€€€€€‚ÿ€0€€‚ÿ€6€‚ÿÿÿgovor$t; (to talk)Œ(3=d#˜€Pí/ñ º €€€‚ÿ$€€€€€‚ÿ€4€€€‚ÿÿÿ1st personq govor^my govor$m,±Íd#˜€Xí/ñ º €€€‚ÿ$€€€€€‚ÿ€:€€€‚ÿÿÿ2nd personty govor$w;vy govor$te—3=d d#˜€fí/ñ º €€€‚ÿ$€€€€€‚ÿ€H€€€‚ÿÿÿ3rd personon/ona/ono govor$toni govor*t2Í– * $€€ R„!€‚‚ÿSee ; d Ñ / .€€RÈãÉØ€‰€‚ÿVerbs )– ú & €€R˜€‚ÿ7Ñ 1 1P‘ š 1 a d@Gender0 ú a ' €€Œ˜B˜€‚ÿGenderƒL1 ä 7 >€˜€¸˜€€€€€€€‚ÿThere are three genders in Russian: masculine, feminine and neuter.gBa K % €„€˜€‚‚ÿAll nouns in Russian are either masculine, feminine or neuter.Úä S . *€µ€˜„´!€‚€‚ÿAlthough there are no rules by which the gender of all nouns can be determined, the gender of many nouns can be determined by their meaning or their ending. The gender of other nouns must be learned individually.j$K ½ F#\€H³/{ €€€‚ÿ€€€‚ÿÿÿhelov&k(a/the man [masculine])r&S / L#h€L³/{ $€€€€€‚ÿ€€€‚ÿÿÿd&vohka(a/the girl [feminine])l ½ › L#h€@³/{ $€€€€€‚ÿ€€€‚ÿÿÿs%lnce(the sun [neuter])6/ Ñ . ,€€R˜„´!€‚€‚ÿSee> › 3 6€€RÈ„´!ãõ¬C€‰€‚ÿNounsd3Ñ s1 0€g€R˜„´!€‚€‚‚‚ÿKnowing the gender of every noun is important not only for the noun itself, but for the spelling and pronunciation of the words it influences in a sentence: adjectives, participles, ordinal numerals , the cardinal numerals 1 and 2, and pronouns. 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